Key
developments since May 2001: In 2001, the EU and its Member States
contributed €142.5 million ($127.9 million) to mine action, including
€28.39 million ($25.5 million) from the EU itself.
BACKGROUND
The European Union (EU) is a supra-national body
to which its Member States have delegated sovereignty in some areas. In other
areas, including foreign policy and defense, the EU functions on a largely
intergovernmental basis. The Member States make mandatory financial
contributions. The EU’s total budget for 2002 is €98.655 billion
(US$88.592 billion). From these funds, the EU makes financial contributions in
many areas, including mine action. In 2001, the EU contributed mine action
funding of €28.39 million ($25.5 million); during the same period, the
total mine action funding of the EU and its Member States amounted to
€142.5 million ($127.9
million).[1]
By 2004, when the First Review Conference of the Mine Ban Treaty takes place,
an additional 10 States may be EU members, including four States Parties to the
treaty (Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia), three current signatories
(Cyprus, Lithuania, Poland) and two States currently not party (Estonia,
Latvia). It is expected that accession talks for these countries will be
concluded at the end of 2002, with membership by 2004. Two other States,
Bulgaria and Romania (both of which are party to the Mine Ban Treaty), are also
EU-applicants. One non-party, Turkey, is seeking to start the negotiation
process.
In November 1993, the Maastricht Treaty establishing the Union entered into
force, incorporating for the first time the objective of a common foreign
policy. The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) is largely based on
intergovernmental positions. All EU activities in relation to the mine ban and
mine action are carried out within the CFSP, which shares the same institutions
as other Community policies. These include the following:
The European Council brings together the Heads of State or Government
of the 15 Member States and the President of the European Commission. It
determines the CFSP principles and guidelines, including those with defense
implications.
The Council of the European Union is composed of ministerial
representatives of each Member State. The Council is responsible for formulating
and implementing the CFSP.
The Presidency of the European Union chairs the European Council and
other subordinate bodies, and represents the EU in CFSP matters. Each member
State takes the Presidency for a six-month period. In the second half of 2001,
Belgium held the Presidency, followed by Spain and Denmark in 2002. Because
Denmark has opted out of defense matters, Greece is responsible for defense in
the latter half of 2002, and Greece will hold the Presidency for the first six
months of 2003.
The European Commission is responsible for external economic
relations, development cooperation and humanitarian aid, including mine action
funding. It ensures consistency of these activities with the CFSP.
The European Parliament is elected every five years by direct
universal suffrage. It has final say over the EU budget and adopts resolutions
calling on the Commission and the Council to modify existing policies or
introduce new ones. As such, it can act as a political driving force.
MINE BAN POLICY
All EU member States signed the Mine Ban Treaty in
December 1997, with the exception of Finland. Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
France, Germany, Ireland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom had ratified it by the
end of 1998. Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain had
ratified the treaty by the end of June 1999.
Greece signed the treaty on 3 December 1997, and, in March 2002, its
Parliament voted unanimously in favor of ratification. It is expected to
deposit its instrument of ratificationat the same time as Turkey
accedes. Finland has consistently supported the objective of a global ban on
antipersonnel mines and in December 2001 reiterated its goal of acceding to the
treaty in 2006. However, Finland’s position as a non-State Party has had
an impact. The EU Commissioner for External Relations declared, “I cannot
hide this fact: the Union’s powers of persuasion in seeking to achieve
[universalization of the Mine Ban Treaty] are obviously somewhat limited by the
remaining difficulties of some Member States in signing and ratifying the
Convention.”[2]
Accession to the Mine Ban Treaty is not a condition for joining the EU. The
Commissioner for External Relations declared that: “We cannot penalise
people when they have a lousy government. As for the applicant countries, we
would expect them to support the joint action [on landmines] which I have just
referred to. This is not Community acquis in the strict legal sense of
that term, but we will obviously encourage them to do away with mines in their
defence, to stop manufacturing mines or trading in them, and to sign and ratify
the Mine Ban Treaty.”[3]
The EU was represented by the European Commission at the First Meeting of
States Parties to the Mine Ban Treaty in May 1999 and at the Second Meeting of
States Parties in September 2000. At the Third Meeting of States Parties in
September 2001 in Managua, Nicaragua, the EU was represented by Belgium, which
held the EU Presidency from July to December 2001. Ambassador Jean Lint, joint
head of the Belgian delegation, made a statement on behalf of the EU, referring
to the progress made on universalization: “Since September 2000, 13 States
have acceded to the Convention, and others have undertaken to do so in the near
future. In view of the accession of such a large number of countries, there no
room for doubt: an international standard has been established.... However, we
must do even better.... The European Union will continue to press for swift
worldwide application of the Convention. It has accordingly made more than 60
demarches to that
effect.”[4]
He also cautioned: “We have no time to lose. The Convention
establishes strict time limits for the destruction of stocks and the clearance
of mined areas.... The countries affected should not be left on their own in
this fight. The whole international community should contribute to attaining
the objectives of the Convention.... The destruction of stocks of
anti-personnel mines is crucial in attaining the objective of the total
elimination of those weapons, which is the sole guarantee that new minefields
cannot be created. It must be possible to achieve destruction as swiftly and
economically as possible, with minimal environmental impact... the European
Union is involved in the effort to destroy stocks of anti-personnel mines and
recognizes the need for greater international assistance in this area.... [and]
accordingly calls upon all States Parties to commit additional resources to aid
those in need.”[5]
The Belgian Presidency also presented the EU position at the Third Annual
Conference of States Parties to Amended Protocol II of Convention on
Conventional Weapons (CCW) and the Second CCW Review Conference in December
2001. It emphasized “the great complementarity” between the Mine
Ban Treaty and Amended Protocol II and pointed out that assistance for mine
clearance is discussed in the intersessional meetings of the Mine Ban Treaty,
which are open to all States. The statement also expressed the EU position on
proposals before the CCW conferences, in favor of extension of the CCW to
non-international armed conflicts, a strongly mandated expert group to consider
the issue of explosive remnants of war, stricter regulation of mines other than
antipersonnel mines, and a light and flexible compliance
mechanism.[6]
Spain, holding the Presidency from January to June 2002, represented the EU
at the intersessional Standing Committees meetings in January and May 2002. At
the meetings in May 2002, Spain confirmed that the EU has supported the setting
up of an expert working group on mines other than antipersonnel mines, within
the context of the CCW, and the strengthening of CCW restrictions on antivehicle
mines.[7]
Responding to a letter from the Belgian Network of the International Campaign
to Ban Landmines (ICBL), Josep Piqué i Camps, Spain’s Minister of
Foreign Affairs stated that the EU will continue to include the issue of
accession to the Mine Ban Treaty in its political dialogue with the United
States and invite it to reconsider its position on the
treaty.[8]
The EU has agreements with many countries and raises the mine issue and the
Mine Ban Treaty during its dialogues with other countries. For example, Article
11 of the EU-ACP Cotonou partnership agreement on 23 June 2000 states that
“particular emphasis shall be given to the fight against antipersonnel
landmines.”[9]
The EU responded to the antipersonnel mines challenge through the Community,
the Common Foreign and Security Policy and the Parliament, with policies in
support of mine action, humanitarian assistance, and research. The Council of
Ministers has been actively engaged since 1995 through joint actions (unanimous
decisions, which are binding on Member States) and resolutions (which represent
consensus positions, but have no legal force). In May 1995, the EU issued a
moratorium on the export of specified types of antipersonnel
mines.[10] In 1996 the
moratorium was extended to all types of antipersonnel landmines and to all
destinations.[11] The Joint
Action of November 1997 extended the previous Joint Action to include all
transfers of antipersonnel mine technology, and issued a moratorium on
production requiring Member States to take legal measures to ban production of
antipersonnel mines.[12]
The European Parliament has acted as a consistent advocate of the mine ban
through successive resolutions and questions urging EU institutions to take
proactive measures in support. On 29 June 1995 a resolution on antipersonnel
mines called for the Council and the Commission to do more to prevent the
dissemination of mines, to concentrate more resources on rehabilitation
programs, and to expand mine action in affected countries. For example, the
partnership between the EU and ACP (Africa, Caribbean & Pacific states)
includes a EU Parliamentary Assembly resolution that was adopted on 26 September
1996 called for ACP countries and EU Member States to engage energetically in
demining actions, for more research into demining techniques, and for
significant progress to be made in achieving a global ban on antipersonnel
mines. The European Parliament resolution on antipersonnel mines of 18 December
1997, in addition to encouraging wider adherence to the Mine Ban Treaty and its
early ratification, also called for more effective coordination of international
efforts in mine clearance and in the rehabilitation of victims.
In 2000, the European Parliament called on Member States and European
institutions to reinforce measures in support of the Mine Ban Treaty, including
its universalization, increased mine action funding and coordination of mine
action. It also called on Council and Member States to “explicitly
mention” in their national legislation antivehicle mines with antihandling
devices that act like antipersonnel landmines “according to the definition
contained in Article 2” of the Mine Ban
Treaty.[13]
On 21 September 2000, four parliamentarians and the ICBL organized a
conference on landmines at the European Parliament in support of two proposed
funding mechanisms and to discuss ways to “improve the co-ordination,
coherence, transparency, visibility, accountability, and effectiveness of the
[funding]
interventions.”[14] The
two new mechanisms (termed “Regulations”) were voted on and amended
by the European Parliament in October 2000, and by the Commission in January
2001.[15] They were again
amended and voted on by the Council of the European Union in May
2001.[16] On 23 July 2001, the
Parliament and Council issued the two
Regulations.[17] Most of the
amendments proposed by the Parliament were included, especially the addition of
stockpile destruction as an explicit objective and support for local
capacity-building for mine
action.[18] Each Regulation
states that “operations financed under this Regulation shall in principle
benefit those countries which are committed to the fight against anti-personnel
landmines and are parties to the Ottawa Convention. Exceptions may be made for
humanitarian emergency, for assistance to mine victims, and for actions in
direct support of vulnerable civilian communities, such as refugees and
displaced persons, or where the national administration is not
functioning.”[19]
In September 2001, the European Parliament voted in favor of a resolution
calling for support of the efforts made by specialist NGOs to engage non-state
actors in the mine ban
process.[20] As a follow-up,
three parliamentarians promoted an “Information Meeting on Cooperation
with Non-State Actors in Banning Anti-Personnel Landmines” on 7 March
2002; guest speakers included representatives from Geneva Call, the ICBL and the
European Commission.
On 13 December 2001, the European Parliament called for a moratorium on
cluster munitions under the
CCW.[21]
MINE ACTION FUNDING
In 1996, the Council of the European Union and the
European Parliament established a specific contribution to mine action, in
addition to the mine clearance activities financed in the context of
humanitarian aid, reconstruction and development
cooperation.[22] A specific
antipersonnel mine budget line (B7-661) has allocated funds on a yearly basis.
In addition, a range of geographical and thematic budget lines and other
financial instruments, such as the European Development Fund, have substantially
contributed to mine action funding.
Overall policy coordination for mine action is the responsibility of the
External Relations Director-General. An ad hoc Mine Action Coordination Group,
made up of EC country desk officers for mine-affected countries and
representatives of different Commission units, meets regularly to establish mine
action funding priorities.[23]
Member States have never coordinated the mine action funding effort. The 2001
Regulations attribute a specific coordination role to the EC in their Article 8:
“The Commission shall...facilitate effective coordination of the
assistance efforts undertaken by the Community and individual Member States, in
order to increase the coherence and complementarity of their programs” and
“[t]he Commission shall promote coordination and cooperation with
international contributors and actors, in particular those which form part of
the United Nations system and with NGOs, as well as with relevant centers such
as the Geneva International Center for Humanitarian
Demining.”[24]
The 2001 Regulations are the basis for EC mine action and identify the main
areas for funding, including supporting civilian mine action strategy, assisting
affected countries in their implementation of the Mine Ban Treaty, creating and
sustaining international structures and local capability for mine action in
affected countries, responding to humanitarian emergency, preventing casualties
and assisting the rehabilitation of mine victims, encouraging mine action
consistent with sustainable development, supporting the introduction and use of
appropriate mine action equipment and techniques, and promoting coordination
among international mine action actors. The two Regulations also support the
destruction of mines in
stockpiles.[25]
At the Third Meeting of States Parties, the Belgian Presidency of the EU
announced that in 2000 the EU contributed €30 million to mine clearance
and victim assistance. This was part of the total €125 million earmarked
by the EU and member states for implementation of the treaty “which makes
the European Union the world’s largest contributor in this field.”
Ambassador Lint added that this represented an increase on EU funding of mine
action in 1999, and that the EU’s “minimum objective is to maintain
the current level of financial support...that is approximately €240
million between 2002 and 2009, under a single budget
heading.”[26]
In 2001, the European Commission contributed a total of €28,390,498
(US$25.5 million) to mine action. This does not include additional mine action
funding by individual EU Member
States.[27]
According to a draft EC brochure “The European Union Mine Actions in
2001,” mine action funding by the EC, added to mine action funding by
individual EU Member States, totaled more than €142.5 million ($127.9
million) in 2001, an increase of 14 percent compared with 2000 (€125
million).[28] Major recipient
countries in 2001 included Afghanistan (€22.5 million), Mozambique
(€10.2 million), Cambodia (€10.2 million), Bosnia and Herzegovina
(€8.9 million) and Eritrea (€8.5 million). A total of 32 countries
have received financial support from the EU in previous years.
Development of Mine Action Center (capacity building)
Eritrea
9½ months
B7-210
215,000
$193,070
Mine awareness
Eritrea
4 months
B7-210
85,000
$76,330
Minefield demarcation
Eritrea
12 months
B7-661
1,400,000
$1,257,200
Landmine Impact Survey
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
2 months
B7-671
100,000
$898,000
Mine and UXO clearance
FYROM
2 months
B7-671
93,922
$84,342
Mine clearance
FYROM
3 months
B7-671
300,000
$269,400
Equipment for demining training
Lebanon
12 months
B7-431
1,579,576
$1,418,459
Mine clearance
Lebanon
12 months
B7-661
1,600,000
$1,436,800
Landmine impact survey
Mozambique
18 months
B7-661
1,950,000
$1,751,100
Emergency mine action
Russian Federation / North Caucasus
3½ months
B7-210
120,000
$107,760
Mine awareness
Russian Federation / North Caucasus
6 months
B7-210
150,000
$134,700
Mine awareness
Somalia
10 months
B7-661
660,000
$592,680
Landmine impact survey
Sudan
12 months
B7-661
1,500,000
$1,347,000
Landmine impact survey
Sudan
12 months
EDF-Humanitarian Plus
80,000
$71,840
Survey
Ukraine
unspecified
TACIS B7-520
67,000
$60,166
Feasibility study - Mine Action Center
Zimbabwe
12 months
EDF-
2,000,000
$1,796,000
Mine clearance
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
10,000
$89,800
Test and evaluation
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
11,000
$9,878
Support to R&D
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
5,000
$4,490
R&D information dissemination
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
40,000
$35,920
Evaluations
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
34,000
$30,532
Mapping support to EC
R&D
unspecified
B6-2111
62,000
$55,676
Research - decision support systems for mine actions
Geneva
B7-661
18,000
$16,164
Interpretation at intersessional Standing Committee meetings
TOTAL
28,390,498
$25,494,667
The overall contribution of €240 million ($215.5) for 2002-2009 was
established by the two Regulations issued on 23 July 2001. From this total,
€140 million is allocated to the B7-661 budget line (averaging €16
million per year) and €100 million will be distributed through thematic
and geographical programs.[29]
Funding in 2002 will be allocated according to priorities established by the
2002-2004 Antipersonnel Landmine Strategy Paper (still in the approval process
in July 2002). Under B7-661, €11 million ($9.9 million) is pledged for
2002 mine action
funding.[30]
In setting the priorities for 2001, the European Commission stated that
“in the light of the ‘landmine free world’ goal set by the
Ottawa Mine Ban Treaty for 2009, all effort shall concentrate on accelerated
mine clearance and victim assistance. This means that a substantial part of
this horizontal budget line will initially be devoted not only to the very
urgent and under-funded mine clearance operations but also to establishment of
information, parameters, criteria, working and management methods required to
make mine clearance efficient, rational and less
expensive.”[31]
Other geographical and horizontal programs and financial instruments
allocated funds for mine action in 2001, as follows:
South East Europe. This is an area of high priority for EU mine
action programs due to the serious socio-economic and humanitarian disruption it
has suffered, and its proximity to the core of Western
Europe.[32] The EU initiated,
and has supported, the Stability Pact for South East Europe which aims to ensure
cooperation among its participants on comprehensive measures for reconstruction
and development of the region. EU actions in the framework of the Stability
Pact include mine action projects and related research and development.
In 2001, the EU’s CARDS Program (Community Assistance for
Reconstruction, Development and Stabilization) financed mine clearance in
Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, through budget line B7-541, in support of
the EU stabilization and association
process.[33]
Africa, Caribbean & Pacific states (ACP). The ACP statesare associated with the EU under the 1975 Lomé Convention, and
receive financial aid from the European Development Fund (the EDF is not part of
the Community budget; member States contribute directly to it). The Commission
and each country jointly identify the priorities for EU
support.[34] Regarding support
for mine action, the European Commission states that “it is indeed
desirable to base all APL initiatives on the needs and priorities identified by
the mine affected countries themselves and reflected in major EC and EU country
strategies.”[35] The 2001
Regulations against antipersonnel mines explicitly state that “Mine action
shall be integrated into all country strategies for mine affected developing
countries.”[36] In 2001,
the EDF financed demining along the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border in northeast
Zimbabwe, as well as an assessment of the landmine problem in
Sudan.[37] Mine action in ACP
states can also be supported through the budget line for rehabilitation and
reconstruction for developing countries (B7-641), which is part of the Community
budget.[38]
Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Thirteen countries (Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, Russia,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan) received grant-financed
technical assistance under the Tacis Programme that mainly aims at enhancing
their transition process.[39]
In 2001, Tacis financed a feasibility study for Ukraine’s Mine Action
Center.[40] Other budget lines
relevant for mine action funding in the region are B7-520 for assistance to
partner countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and B7-522: rehabilitation
and reconstruction in partner countries of Eastern Europe and Central
Asia.[41]
Mediterranean and Middle East. In 2001, mine action in Lebanon was
financed under the budget line B7-431: rehabilitation and reconstruction
operations in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern
Countries.[42] Other financial
instruments that may be used to support mine action in the region include: MEDA
Program (B7-410) supporting measures to accompany the reforms to the economic
and social structures in the Mediterranean non-member countries, special aid for
the implementation of the Israeli-Palestinian peace accords (B7-420), and
support for the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian refugees
in the North East
(B7-421).[43]
Asia and Latin America. In 2001, no Asian or Latin American countries
except Afghanistan received mine action funding from the EC. Previously,
Cambodia was the second largest recipient of EC mine action funding. Mainly
horizontal programs have previously earmarked funds for mine action in these
regions. However geographical budget lines may be used to support mine action
and victim assistance. For Asia, they include B7-300 for financial and
technical cooperation with Asian developing countries; and B7-302: aid to
uprooted people in Asian countries, which covers measures to promote the
self-sufficiency of refugees, displaced persons and other populations because of
fighting, lack of security or other man-made
crises.[44] In addition, in the
B7-303: rehabilitation and reconstruction operations in developing countries in
Asia, which covers measures to initiate the return to a normal life of people in
the aftermath of a critical situation, financed actions including rehabilitation
of basic infrastructure, mine clearance, raising awareness of danger, and
assisting the disabled.[45] In
Latin America, mine action and victim assistance funding can also be provided
under B7-310 for financial and technical cooperation with Latin American
developing countries, B7-312: aid to uprooted people in Latin America, and
B7-313: rehabilitation and reconstruction operations in developing countries in
Latin America.[46]
In 2001, two horizontal programs have also provided mine action funding:
ECHO (the European Commission’s Humanitarian Aid Office)
provides emergency assistance and relief to the victims of natural disasters or
armed conflict outside the European Union. For this purpose it manages a number
of budget lines, including B7-201, which has financed mine action in
post-conflict and emergency situations. Sources of ECHO funds are the general
European Commission budget and the European Development Fund. In 2001, ECHO
funded mine action in Afghanistan, mine awareness and minefield marking in
Eritrea, and mine awareness in the Russian Federation/North
Caucasus.[47]
The Rapid Reaction Mechanism is an instrument designed for urgent
intervention in crisis situations. It can be used both to conduct one-off
actions arising out a crisis situation and to initiate projects requiring longer
term follow-up through other assistance instruments. In 2001, it funded urgent
mine/unexploded ordnance clearance in Afghanistan and the Former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia.[48]
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)
EU funding policy for mine-related R&D is
implemented through multi-annual framework programs. The EU budget for R&D
for humanitarian demining under the Fourth Framework Programme (1994–1998)
was €17 million ($15.3 million) and €16 million ($14.4 million)
under the Fifth Framework Programme (1998–2002). In 2002, the EC launched
the sixth program
(2002-2006).[49]
The research goal of the European Commission is to boost European industrial
and research institutions’ involvement in developing safer, faster and
cost-effective tools to help humanitarian demining
activities.[50] The R&D
activities are twofold: developing survey tools to help map affected areas more
accurately, and developing better antipersonnel mine detection
tools.[51] The Commission has
two separate lines of support: “direct actions” executed by the
Commission’s Joint Research Centre, and “indirect actions”
realized as cost-shared action projects financed in the Fifth Framework
Programme through the Information Society Technologies
program.[52]
The Joint Research Centre (JRC) at Ispra in Italy has developed expertise in
technologies relevant to minefield surveys and mine detection and
identification, in particular infrared landmine detection and metal detectors.
It supports a range of activities including the Multi-sensor Mine Signature
Measurements Campaign, which assists research centers and other organizations in
testing mine detection systems, and the ARIS (Action for Research and
Information Support in Civilian Demining) network, which is a forum for
information exchange between users, researchers, developers and producers of
detection devices and systems. The JRC also participates to the Demining
Technologies Information Forum which aims to provide a platform for the
identification of demining technology gaps, for the synergistic exchange of
ideas, for collaborative international program coordination and planning, and
for the review of progress in the mine action technology
area.[53]
The International Test and Evaluation Programme for Humanitarian Demining(ITEP) was agreed on 17 July 2000 by Belgium, Canada, the Netherlands,
Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Commission,
represented by the Joint Research Centre. ITEP establishes a global network for
measuring performance and evaluating the effectiveness and suitability of all
forms of equipment, systems, and methods for use in humanitarian demining. In
2001, under EC leadership, members of ITEP from Belgium, Canada and the UK
launched the first project: Systematic Inventory of Test & Evaluation
(T&E) Activities, Capabilities & Needs in South Eastern Europe
(SEE).[54] The aim of this
project was to collate information on current projects and capabilities that
support demining efforts in the region.
The EC also took the initiative in standardization of humanitarian demining.
In August 2000, the EC requested the European Committee for Standardization
(CEN) to establish standard methodologies in the context of humanitarian
demining, including minefield survey, close-in detection and identification of
antipersonnel mines, and test and evaluation of tools in support of humanitarian
demining. The CEN members, which are the national standardization bodies of the
Member States of the EU and European Free Trade Association, plus the Czech
Republic and Malta, cooperates with the International Organization for
Standardization, the UN Mine Action Service and the Geneva International Center
for Humanitarian Demining. At the end of 2001 the CEN action plan identified as
main fields of work: recognition of the International Mine Action Standards,
test and evaluation of metal detectors, characterization of soils and mechanical
equipment, training requirements for operators, and protective clothing. CEN
promoted two technical meetings on test and evaluation of metal detectors on 3-5
December 2001 and on 8-10 April 2002 at the Joint Research
Center.[55]
So-called indirect actions co-financed by the EC in 2001 include eight
research projects on sensor development for reduction of mine-suspected areas
and mine detection for removal. Two projects (ARC and SMART) are developing
area reduction systems using a drone as a platform for sensor. The CLEARFAST
project will mount the sensor on a wheeled vehicle to delineate fields by
circling from outside the affected area. Four projects are focusing on locator
systems developing different sensors. The BIOSENSOR project is developing a
biological vapor detector called the artificial dog’s nose which will be
able to find small quantities of explosive in mines. The DIAMINE project is
developing a plastic detection system, based on the neutron back-scattering
technique. The BULRUSH project, based on the concept of acoustic sonar rays, has
been developed for mine detection in shallow inland water areas. The DEMAND
project is aimed at the enhancement of three existing technologies for
multi-sensor landmine detection. Finally, EUDEM2 is aimed at ensuring proper
communication between researchers group and operational demining
ones.[56]
At a workshop on 18 February 2002, an EC representative identified as
promising projects the Novel Ground Penetrating Radar system, improvements to
commercial metal detectors, the BIOSENSOR, the artificial dog’s nose, and
the two area reduction
projects.[57] Constraints on
field implementation identified by participants were the large investment needed
to turn a prototype into a commercial product, the small size of the market for
demining equipment, funding limitations due to rules on free trade competition,
and the small size of demining
contracts.[58]
In 2002, the Sixth Framework Programme entered into force. According to the
Commissioner for Research this provides an opportunity to support R&D for
humanitarian mine action: “the problem is complex and success will only be
achieved through a combination of competencies and resources available at the
national research centres and European industry, through achieving consensus on
a common R&D strategy. I think that the objectives and instruments of the
European Research Area (ERA) could answer this challenge. The aim of ERA is to
create a single market for research, researchers and knowledge, an area in which
research and innovation stakeholders, be they individual researchers,
universities, research centres or private companies, can define their strategies
and operate without constraint at European level.... It seems to me to be
important to develop a strategy for research and development for humanitarian
mine action technologies, which will allow us to create a critical mass of
resources, activities, competencies and
expertise.”[59]
[1] Exchange rate at 29 April 2002 :
€1 = US$0.898, used throughout. See later section on Mine Action
Funding. [2] Speech by Chris Patten,
Commissioner for External Relations, European Parliament, 25 October
2000. [3] Ibid. Community acquis, or
acquis communautaire, denotes the whole body of principle, policy, laws,
practices obligations and objectives that have been agreed within the European
Union. [4] “Speech by the European
Union to the Third Meeting of the States Parties to the Ottawa
Convention,” Managua, Nicaragua, 18-21 September 2001 (official
English-language version). Ambassador Lint noted that many other countries
aligned with the EU statement: “countries of central and eastern
Europe...EFTA member countries belonging to the European Economic
Area...Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Iceland, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and
Turkey.” [5] “Speech by the
European Union to the Third Meeting of the States Parties to the Ottawa
Convention,” Managua, Nicaragua, 18-21 September 2001 (official
English-language version). [6]
“Intervention de la Belgique au nom de l’Union
européenne,” Third Annual Conference of States Parties to Amended
Protocol II and the Second CCW Review Conference, Geneva, 10-21 December
2001. [7] Oral remarks to the Standing
Committee on the General Status and Operation of the Convention, Geneva, 31 May
2002. Notes taken by Landmine
Monitor. [8] Letter to ICBL Belgian
Network from Josep Piqué i Camps, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Spain,
24 May 2002. [9] EU-ACP Cotonou
Partnership Agreement, Article 11, Cotonou, Benin, 23 June
2000. [10] 95/170/CFSP Council Decision
of 12 May 1995 concerning the joint action adopted by the Council on the basis
of Article J.3 of the Treaty on European Union on anti-personnel mines, Official
Journal of the European Communities, L 11511, 22 May
1995. [11] 96/588/CFSP Joint action of 1
October 1996, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 260, 12 October
1996. [12] 97/817/CFSP Joint action of
28 November 1997, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 338, 9
December 1997. [13] B5-0802/2000,
European resolution on antipersonnel landmines, 25 0ctober 2000. Resolutions
are not legally binding. [14] “A
day for a mine free world,” 21 September 2000, available at: ICBL Archives
2000, www.icbl.org, and COM (2000) 111, “Communication from the Commission
to the European Parliament and the Council on Action Against Anti-Personnel
Landmines: Reinforcing the Contribution of the European Union,” Brussels,
14 March 2000. [15] COM/2000/0880 final
-2000/0062/A (COD), “Amended proposal for a European Parliament and
Council Regulation concerning action against anti-personnel landmines,”
and COM/2000/0880 final - CNS 2000/0062/B 16 January 2001, and “Amended
proposal for a Council Regulation concerning action against anti-personnel
landmines in third countries other than developing countries,” Official
Journal of the European Communities, C120, 24 April
2001. [16] “Common position
adopted by the Council on 31 May 2001 with a view to the adoption of a
regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning action
against anti-personnel landmines in developing countries/in third countries
other than developing countries,” Official Journal of the European
Communities, C 213, 31 July 2001. [17]
Regulations (EC) No 1724/2001 and (EC) No 1725/2001, Official Journal of the
European Communities, L 234, 1 September 2001.
[18]
Ibid. [19]
Ibid. [20] RSP/2001/2599, Resolution on
measures to promote a commitment by non-State actors to a total ban on
anti-personnel landmines. [21] B5-0765,
0775, 0782 and 0789/2001, European Parliament resolution on cluster bombs, 13
December 2001. [22] 96/588/CFSP Joint
Action of 1 October 1996, Official Journal of the European Communities L 260, 12
October 1996. [23] Interview with
Daniela Di Corrado Adreoni, Chief of the Mine Action Coordination Group,
European Commission, Brussels, 22 February
2002. [24] Regulation (EC) No 1724/2001
and (EC) No 1725/2001, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 234, 1
September 2001. [25]
Ibid. [26] “Speech by the European
Union to the Third Meeting of the States Parties to the Ottawa
Convention,” Managua, Nicaragua, 18-21 September 2001 (official
English-language version). [27]
“European Community Mine Actions 2001,” European Commission,
available at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [28]
“The European Union Mine Action in the World,” European Commission,
draft document received on 1 July
2002. [29] Regulation (EC) No 1724/2001
and (EC) No 1725/2001, Official Journal of the European Communities L 234, 1
September 2001. [30] Official Journal
of the European Communities L029, 31 January
2002. [31] “The EU and
Anti-Personnel landmines challenge – Programming 2001,” European
Commission, available at:
europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/mine/intro/prog_2001.htm. [32]
“Mine Action in South East Europe,” European Commission, available
at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/actions/see/see.html. [33]
“The EU’s relations with South Eastern Europe,” European
Commission, available at: europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/see/index.htm,
and “European Community Mine Actions 2001,” European
Commission, available at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [34]
Internal Agreement between Representatives of the Governments of Members States
on the Financing and Administration of Community Aid 00/770/EC, Official Journal
of the European Communities L 317, 15 December
2000. [35] “The EU and
Anti-Personnel landmines challenge – Programming 2001,” European
Commission, available at:
europa.eu.int/external_relations/mine/intro/prog_2001.htm. [36]
Regulation (EC) No 1724/2001 and (EC) No 1725/2001, Official Journal of the
European Communities L 234, 1 September
2001. [37] “European Community
Mine Actions 2001, ” European Commission, available at:
http://eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [38]
Email to Handicap International Belgium from Daniela Di Corrado Adreoni, Chief
of the Mine Action Coordination Group, European Commission, 25 March
2002. [39] “EU’s Relations
with Eastern Europe & Central Asia,” European Commission, available
at:
europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/ceeca/tacis/index.htm. [40]
“European Community Mine Actions 2001, ” European Commission,
available at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [41]
Email to Handicap International Belgium from Daniela Di Corrado Adreoni, Chief
of the Mine Action Coordination Group, European Commission, 25 March
2002. [42] “European Community
Mine Actions 2001, ” European Commission, available at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [43]
Email to Handicap International Belgium from Daniela Di Corrado Adreoni, Chief
of the Mine Action Coordination Group, European Commission, 25 March
2002. [44]
Ibid. [45] Ibid., and Official Journal
of the European Communities L029, 31 January
2002. [46] Email to Handicap
International Belgium from Daniela Di Corrado Adreoni, Chief of the Mine Action
Coordination Group, European Commission, 25 March
2002. [47] “European Community
Mine Actions 2001,” European Commission, available at:
eu-mine-action.jrc.cec.eu.int/action/period/2001final.htm. [48]
Ibid. [49] Russell Gasser, “ITS
Research Effort for Humanitarian Demining,” Workshop on the Potential of
the European Research Area (ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining Systems,
Brussels, 18 February 2002. [50]
Regulation (EC) No 1724/2001 and (EC) No 1725/2001, Official Journal of the
European Communities, L 234, 1 September
2001. [51] “Humanitarian Demining
Technologies – RTD and Support projects,” Directorate General
Information Society, European Commission, August
2001. [52] Communication from the
Commission to the European Parliament and the Council, Action Against Anti
Personnel Landmines: Reinforcing the Contribution of the European Union,
2000/0062 (COD), Brussels, 14 March 2000, and speech of Philippe Basquin,
European Commissioner for Research, Workshop about the Potential of the European
Research Area (ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining Systems, Brussels, 18
February 2002. [53] For details see:
humanitarian-security.jrc.it and
demining.jrc.it. [54] Al Carruthers and
Francois Littman, “Systematic Inventory of Test & Evaluation (T&E)
Activities, Capabilities & Needs in South Eastern Europe, final
report,” ITEP, 30 November 2001. See also:
eu-mine-actions.jrc.cec.eu.int/technology/itep.html. [55]
Jan Van Herp, “CEN and Humanitarian Demining,” Workshop about the
Potential of the European Research Area (ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining
Systems, Brussels, 18 February 2002. See also:
humanitarian-security.jrc.it/demining/cw07/index.htm. [56]
“Humanitarian Demining Technologies – RTD and Support
projects,” Directorate General Information Society, European Commission,
August 2001. [57] Russell Gasser, Area
(ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining Systems, Brussels, 18 February
2002. [58] Russell Gasser, “ITS
Research effort for Humanitarian Demining,” Workshop about the Potential
of the European Research Area (ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining Systems,
Brussels, 18 February 2002. [59] Speech
of Philippe Basquin, European Commissioner for Research, Workshop about the
Potential of the European Research Area (ERA) for Fielding Humanitarian Demining
Systems, Brussels, 18 February 2002.
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